A Monster Can Be Hard To Define. Describing A Monster Can

A monster can be hard to define. Describing a monster can be easier than defining one. The term ’monster’ is broad and vague and as a result, it is easier to describe a monster rather than to define one. Tina Boyer says: â€Å"A monster is a cultural construct. By definition, it is a thing that shows or reflects cultural fears and forbidden obsessions, social and moral problems that express themselves in the body and behavior of the monstrous creature (Boyer 240).† What makes a monster scary differs among cultures, however, there are general trends of monsters and villains among cultures. Monsters are ugly in many European-based cultures, depicted with asymmetrical limbs and features. Hollywood has used these traits to make better movies for†¦show more content†¦Europeans believed it was possible that a disfigured, crazy, or foreign being would jump out and act maliciously towards them. However, after the renaissance, they learned monsters would not jum p out at them (Wright 2-4). Wright explains that the Europeans started to find deeper meaning in the monster stories: â€Å"As monstrous races faded from popularity, the increased focus on unnatural or monstrous individuals added new interest in the long-standing philosophical and theological debates about whether or not monsters could be human and where monsters fit within God’s ordered universe [†¦] philosophers and theologians in both the medieval period and the Renaissance often interpreted these monstrous individuals as carrying a specific meaning for the community into which they were born (Wright 6).† Early philosophers found lessons in monster stories. One of these lessons was that monsters had a bigger meaning. They were correct. These monsters had more meaning in the community they were born in and therefore were scarier. As people learned about these monsters they became less scary, however, new monsters emerged. Thus, the definition of monsters changed and will continue to change as the fears of society change. As stated before, different cultures are scared of different monsters. Horror movies are only as scary as the viewer perceives them based personal experiences. Essentially, the viewer has to know what is scary before they can beShow MoreRelatedAnalysis Of Percy Jackson And The Battle Of The Labyrinth859 Words   |  4 PagesPercy Jackson And the Battle of the Labyrinth Draft Prompt: In this book, Hera talks about how important family is. However, we then learn that she really only values people who are perfect. Write an essay describing three characters in this book who have flaws and imperfections. Are these characters still useful? You should write a paragraph about each one, and make sure to describe a time where they were helpful because of their imperfections. Then, write a fourth paragraph about how a real personRead More Narrative Voices in Shelleys Frankenstein and Fathers and Sons by Ivan Turgenev1523 Words   |  7 Pagesnovels of Frankenstein (F) and Fathers and Sons (FS). Mary Shelley’s novel Frankenstein is an example of first- person narrative, with Walton describing his encounters in letters to his sister Margaret, in England. He includes his meeting Victor Frankenstein, of Victor’s experiences with his creation of Frankenstein the monster, and the monster himself and his experiences. 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This book is a semi-autobiography that won the 2007 U.S. National Book Award For Young Peoples Lite rature. This story is about an Indian boy from a poor reservation with an alcoholic father, who wishes for a better life. In order to achieve this better life, Junior decides to move to another school in order to have hope for his futureRead MoreSatirical Abortion Essay1425 Words   |  6 Pagesabortion because we disagree about what defines human nature. First trimester abortions may have absolutely no moral implications whatsoever--perhaps a first trimester embryo is no more conscious than a kidney or spleen. Or they may have more serious moral implications. Our culture hasnt come to a consensus on that yet. But we know a little bit about murder, and the differences between murder and other forms of killing. And murder, in the way that we define it in all other instances, involves theintentional  deathRead MoreRhetorical Analysis Of Sherman Alexie s An Absolutely True Diary Of A Part Time Indian 1278 Words   |  6 PagesThis rhetorical analysis will bring you through the How to Fight Monsters chapter of Sherman Alexie s story : An Absolutely True Diary of a Part Time Indian. This book is a semi-autobiography that won the 2007 U.S. National Book Award For Young People s Literature. This story is about an Indian boy from a poor reservation with an alcoholic father, who wishes for a better life. In order to achieve this better life, Junior decides to move to another school in order to have hope for his futureRead MoreA Scientist s Judgement1885 Words   |  8 Pagesgreat unknown, but they must do it in a way in which they are absolutely prepared for it. They set out to discover al l of nature’s secrets, however it is also necessary that they know the ramifications that these secrets may bring about. It is not hard to see that this is circular reasoning. Per this argument, science is an idealistic possibility which may never occur without a great tragedy. This trend of unbound science leading to tragedy is a reoccurring theme in Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein. Read MoreThe Mystery Of Vampire Legend1350 Words   |  6 Pagesthrough cultural beliefs, of both current and past times, that the character of the vampire has altered. Lately, while still powerful and endearing, vampires have become a symbol for estrangement, choice, their own personal definition of evil, but can also act for examples of self-control, sacrifice and belief. Anne Rice’s Interview With a Vampire and Stephanie Meyer’s Twilight are just two novels incorporating the obsession and fascination of the vampire. In Interview With a Vampire, Rice tellsRead MoreThe Representational Theory Of Mind1659 Words   |  7 PagesMind) which runs on physical hardware (the body). It suggests, too, that we are computing machines functioning as something other than a computing machine, just as every other machine does. Many are disconcerted by the idea that humans and Minds can be described as systems which operate based on interpretations of symbols, much like machines, computers, and robots: things that we have created yet do not think of as being â€Å"thinking,† themselves. We, as human beings, are comforted in the notion thatRead MoreCan A Social Movement Be Fundamentally Flawed? Essay1535 Words   |  7 PagesCan a social movement be fundamentally flawed? Most people would answer â€Å"yes,† pointing to National Socialism or the Ku Klux Klan. However, few would consider the German New Left to epitomize a flawed social movement. According to history professor Dagmar Herzog, they should. Throughout her publication Sex After Fascism, Herzog disputes this central argument of the New Left: â€Å"Numerous New Leftists argued directly that sexuality and politics were causally linked; convinced that sexual repression produced

Enterprise, Entrepreneurship And Intrapreneurship. Enterprise

Introduction Entrepreneur came from the French word called ‘Enteprendre’, which means ‘to undertake’ when translated into English and that is what entrepreneurs basically do. This report not only discusses what entrepreneurship is but also the different methods an entrepreneur can use to develop a business and how a new/fresh business can help the economy and third world countries too. This report explains what can go wrong within a business and what sorts of misconceptions there are, and if they’re true or not. Definition of enterprise, entrepreneurship and intrapreneurship Enterprise is a project that is especially bold, difficult or complex such as starting a business for example THE BBC or Oxfam. An entrepreneur is somebody who†¦show more content†¦Such as, in Cromie and Johns (1983) study where they identified similar characteristics/traits being important for a successful business. Other research from Gibb’s (2005) has suggested that the skills that an entrepreneur needs include decision making, coping with uncertainty and complexity, building relationships, a creative approach to problem solving, negotiation and being persuasive. Gibb’s also suggested attributes that a entrepreneur should have, this includes sense of belief in self, independence, goal/achievement orientated, commitment, ownership over own actions. He also suggested behaviours that an entrepreneur should have, they include being able to seek and take opportunities, initiative, building and developing networks, assessing and taking risks, holistic management of situations and having a strategic thinking. The importance of enterprise, entrepreneurship and small businesses in the context of the wider economy as well as the individual or team The importance of enterprise, entrepreneurship and small businesses in the context of the wider economy as well as the individual or team is to develop personal relationships, this is because small businesses can help build personal relationships with a lot of different people, such as the suppliers, customers and employees. A second important factor is the inventiveness and innovation from the enterprise, entrepreneur and small business. It isShow MoreRelatedInnovation, Entrepreneurship, And Innovation1559 Words   |  7 PagesInnovation, Entrepreneurship, and Intrapreneurship 2 INTRODUCTION Innovation, entrepreneurship and intrapreneurship is bringing your vision, creativity to life while building something of value that customers are willing to pay for. 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Leadership Is “Having an Irrational Sense of Hope” Free Essays

string(78) " keep a journal to note their reflections and thoughts throughout the course\." NANYANG BUSINESS SCHOOL MBA 2012-2013 TRIMESTER 1 B6018 LEADERSHIP AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR Course Coordinator/Instructor: Assoc. Prof Lim Beng Chong Office: S3-B2B-63 / E-mail : bclim@ntu. edu. We will write a custom essay sample on Leadership Is â€Å"Having an Irrational Sense of Hope† or any similar topic only for you Order Now sg Class Schedule: Wed evenings 6:15pm – 9:30 pm (or Saturday mornings 9:00 am -12:00 noon for extra/postponed sessions) Class Venue: NTU @ one-north SR 502 COURSE DESCRIPTION A leader is a man (woman) who has the ability to get people to do what they don’t want to do, and like it – Harry S. Truman (1954) Few organization and management issues have attracted as much interest and research work as leadership. From politics to the business world to military institutions, people are always searching for that someone, whom they called LEADER, to lead and inspire the people to achieve success or to bring about change. So what is leadership? There are many definitions of leadership in organizations. Almost every author of books has one. Bass (1990), after reviewing the literature, suggests that there are at least 12 different approaches to the definition. What is your definition of leadership? What type of leader are you? How can you be a better leader to your work team or organization? I hope you will begin to think about these questions as you embark on your leadership journey with me in this course. Essentially, effective leaders are those who can mobilize others to get extraordinary or exceptional things done in their work teams or organizations. In today’s organizations, managers are not only responsible for the planning, organizing and controlling functions in their work teams or organizations; they have to accomplish these goals by leading their people. Hence, their success as managers is dependent on their ability to motivate and inspire others. In other words, being leaders of their people. From this perspective, success and failure as managers rest squarely on the ability of the managers to understand and manage people at work. Therefore, critical to leadership success is a good knowledge of managing people in organizations or a good grounding in the fundamentals of work behaviour in organizations. Given the above, this course will bring together the leadership literature and the insights on human nature at work from Organization Behaviour. The learning objectives are: †¢ Increase participants’ understanding of people at work as well as of organizations as complex systems by examining organizational behaviour at 3 levels: the individual (self and others), the work team and the larger organizational context. †¢ Increase participants’ understanding of leadership processes and how these are intertwined with an understanding of organizational behaviour. Develop participants’ repertoire of leadership capabilities through greater self-awareness a deeper understanding of the impact of their actions on others – and building leadership habits to better equip them to lead and take effective actions in today’s organizations. Leadership Develops Daily, not in a Day – John Maxwell 1 COURSE OUTLINE â€Å"The Law of Intentionality – Growth doesn’t just happen† Life is now in session. Are you present? – Maxwell (2012) The appendix provides a summary of the topics that would be covered for each session. The approach to all sessions will be grounded on participation-centered learning and the course design includes a range of participation-centered activities such as case studies, group exercises and assignments, peer conversations, debates, self-reflection activities and talks by invited guest speakers. [See attached Course Outline table] READINGS PRE-CLASS PREPARATION The study of leadership and work behaviour, given its multidisciplinary nature, entails a fair amount of reading in preparation for the classes. Pre-class readings are essential and participants are expected to prepare the case studies or exercises prior to discussion in class. Two books have been prescribed and each covers different topics and levels of analysis. The relevant chapters for reading from each textbook and additional readings will be given in the detailed course outline. RECOMMENDED TEXTBOOKS IVANCEVICH, J. M. , KONOPASKE, R. and MATTESON, M. T. (2011). Organizational Behavior and Management 9th edition. McGraw – Hill Internation. New York. ULRICH, D. (2010). Leadership in Asia. McGraw-Hill – OPTIONAL REFERENCES – JOHN MAXWELL (2007). The 21 irrefutable laws of leadership. Thomas Nelson – DANIEL LEVI (2007). Group Dynamics for Teams. 2nd edition. Sage Publication – ROB GOFFEE and GARETH JONES (2006). Why should anyone be led by you? Harvard Business Press PARTICIPATION ASSESSMENT Class Participation/Sharing. The course is designed to provide ample opportunities for participants to contribute to the class learning by participating actively in the various class activities and by offering proactively their own experiences and insights for the benefits of other participants. This will constitute an important component of participants’ continuous assessment (10% of the total marks). â€Å"The law of Contribution – growing yourself enables you to grow others† – Maxwell (2012). Class Quizzes. Weekly seminars may commence with a short quiz to assess participants’ basic understanding of the concepts and key terms in the prescribed readings for that week. The purpose is to help participants develop a habit of continuous learning- a critical leadership habit. Hopefully, by the end of the course, participants will have built up a repository of knowledge on leadership and organizational behavior. Again, this will constitute another component of the participants’ Leadership Develops Daily, not in a Day – John Maxwell 2 continuous assessment (10% of the total marks). â€Å"the law of Consistency: motivation gets you going – Discipline keeps you growing. † Self Case Study (real life leadership/OB challenge). John McDonnell once said, â€Å"Every problem introduces a person to himself†. As a leader/manager, you are likely to encounter different types of work situations – both positive and negative. As leaders, we can make the mistake but not lose the lesson. Hence there is much to be learned from one’s experiences especially from less positive ones. The objective of this individual assignment is to provide an opportunity for participants to learn from their experience at work or working with others by overlaying the concepts and theories covered during the course on the real life challenges. (10% of the total marks). The law of Pain: good management of bad experiences leads to great growth. † Reflection PaperLeadership Journaling. As we embark on this learning journey together, I strongly encourage course participants keep a journal to note their reflections and thoughts throughout the course. You read "Leadership Is â€Å"Having an Irrational Sense of Hope†" in category "Papers" These reflections and thoughts on leadership and organizatio nal behaviour can form the basis for the reflection paper (less than 1000 words) to be submitted at the end of the course (10% of the total marks). â€Å"The law of Reflection: learning to pause allows growth to catch up with you. Up to 4 x Mini-Group Assignments. Working in teams is part and parcel of organizational life. As leaders, we are expected to lead a team of diverse individuals to achieve a common goal. Many times, we are also members of other teams. Hence being able to lead and willing to be led is an integral part of being a manager. These mini-team assignments are designed to allow participants to work together to achieve a common goal. Hopefully, they can apply the science of leadership and OB in the process and hone their leadership skills (20% of the total marks). The law of influence: the true measure of leadership is influence – nothing more, nothing less. † Final Examination. The examination will be an open-book exam of two and a half hours. Summary of Course Assessment and Requirements: B6018 Max pts Class Participation / Sharing 100 Class Quizzes 100 Self Case Study (real life leadership/OB challenge) 100 Reflection paper/leadership journaling 100 Up to 4 x Mini-Group Assignments 100 Final examination (open-book) 100 Total 600 ? subject to changes by the instructor during the course % Final score 10 10 10 10 20 40 100 Leadership Develops Daily, not in a Day – John Maxwell 3 ASSESSMENT PLAN Learning Goal Course Learning Objectives Assessment Method -class Quizzes -Self Case Study -Reflection Paper – min-group assignments -Open-book examination -Self Case Study -Reflection Paper – mini-group assignments -Open-book examination -Peer assessments of the skills demonstrated during Mini-group assignments Acquiring Applying Knowledge To gain an understanding of various concepts of leadership and organisational behaviour, such that students can use the â€Å"most useful† concepts for their professional lives. Assessment Rubrics* Written Assignment Rubric Critical/Creative Thinking To show critical/creative thinking in the evaluation of written ideas and case examples about leadership/OB. Written Assignment Rubric Teamwork and interpersonal skills To improve students’ skills for working with others. Peer Assessment Rubric Leadership Develops Daily, not in a Day – John Maxwell 4 Written Assignment Rubric Criteria Acquiring knowledge and Critical Thinking Description This refers to the breadth and depth of understanding and analysis of the subject/content. Quality of answer assessed by well-considered and supported assertions, arguments, explanations, logic and inferences drawn from accurate interpretation and appropriate use/citation of literature. Range Poor Answer and/or literature cited do not address the question well. Answer is descriptive rather than analytical. Arguments are implicit rather than explicit. Logic and inferences are not clear. Average Answer and/or literature cited generally address the question. There is analysis and arguments but they are weak and broad. Arguments and logic are piece-meal and not integrated. Some issues are discussed adequately and others, less adequately. Minimum description of appropriate application of knowledge, experience and insights. Good Answer addresses the question directly. Literature is appropriately cited to support assertions and arguments. Writing is generally logical and integrated. Nonetheless, answer falls short of the highest standard in some ways, e. g. possible lines of assertion or argument may be missed or neglected. Well argued application of knowledge with clear and logical linkage to personal experience. Relevant insights and new ideas that have considered the practical constraints. Nonetheless, answer falls short of the highest standard in some ways, e. g. , lapses in one or more arguments, inadequate description. Excellent Answer addresses the question directly with breadth and depth. Literature is appropriately cited to support assertions and arguments. Writing is relevant, logical, and well integrated. Mark Awarded Application of knowledge and Creative thinking This refers to the appropriate application of knowledge and linkages to personal insights and experience. Creative insights and ideas are welcome when they are relevant and anchored to realistic/practical challenges. Inappropriate application of knowledge. Inadequate description of experience and insights. Little or no insights. Irrelevant or impractical ideas. Very well argued application of knowledge and boundaries, with clear and logical linkage to personal experience. Relevant insights and new ideas that have considered the practical constraints. Leadership Develops Daily, not in a Day – John Maxwell 5 Quality of Writing – clarity of expression Quality of Writing – Organization and Formatting This refers to how effectively arguments, ideas and thoughts put forth in the essay are communicated and comprises word usage, sentence usage, paragraphing and fluency of expression. This refers to the overall organization, integration and flow of the essay. Format following the submission guidelines and proper use of footnotes/endnotes; references and bibliography. Has difficulties expressing ideas. Expresses ideas fairly clearly and coherently. Expresses ideas fluently and eloquently. Expresses ideas very fluently and eloquently. Has some limitations organising the ideas and following submission guidelines. Satisfactorily organized. Integration and flow can be better. Some lapses in following submission guidelines. Well organized, integrated and flowing. Format follows guidelines almost completely. Very well organized, integrated and flowing. Format follows guidelines completely. Leadership Develops Daily, not in a Day – John Maxwell 6 Teamwork Interpersonal Skills Rubric (For Peer Rating) Learning Objective: The ability to work effectively with others in a group setting. Your ratings will not be revealed to your team members. Group Name: _______________________________________________ Name of Rater: ______________________________________________ Fill in your members’ names below and Rate on a scale of â€Å"1† to â€Å"6† for each trait Name1 Name2 Name3 Name4 Traits Roles and Responsibility Behaves professionally by upholding responsibility and assuming accountability for self and others in progressing towards the team’s goal. Communication Identifies appropriate mechanisms to coordinate and correspond with team members. Performance Scant Unclear about his/her own role; refuses to take a role in the group; insists to work individually and has limited coordination or communication with others. Evaluation: Scant 1 2 3 4 5 Scant Modes of communication are not appropriate, causing confusion and miscommunication among team members. Evaluation: Scant 1 2 3 4 Scant Does not recognize conflicts or is unwilling to resolve conflicts. Evaluation: Scant 1 Substantially Developed Always fulfills responsibilities; performs his/her role within the group with enthusiasm and demonstrates willingness to work collaboratively. Name5 6 Substantially Developed Substantially Developed Modes of communication are appropriate, and maintains timely communication and correspondence with team members. 5 6 Substantially Developed Substantially Developed Consistently resolves conflicts through facilitating open discussion and compromise. Conflict Resolution Resolves conflicts using a variety of approaches. Contributions Contributes positive input for the team; effectively utilizes one’s knowledge and expertise. 2 3 4 5 6 Substantially Developed Substantially Developed Actively attends and participates in all activities and provides meaningful contribution in articulating ideas and opinions. Scant Largely disinterested in working in a group and refuses to participate; observes passively or is unwilling to share information with other team members. Evaluation: Scant 1 2 3 4 Scant Rarely listens to others and does not acknowledge the opinions that differ from his/her own. 6 Substantially Developed Substantially Developed Engages in respectful relationships with all other members in the team. Embraces and accepts diverse points of view without prejudice. Relationship Maintains cooperative interaction with other team members regardless of individual /cultural differences and respects diverse perspectives. Evaluatio n: Scant 1 2 3 4 5 6 Substantially Developed Leadership Develops Daily, not in a Day – John Maxwell 7 Self Case Study The law of Pain: Good management of bad experiences leads to great growth. † – Maxwell (2012) The objective of this individual assignment is to provide an opportunity for participants to learn from their experience at work or working with others by overlaying the concepts and theories covered during the course on the real life challenges. There are two parts to this individual assignment. a. Part 1. To be handed in on Week 3 of the course. The participants will describe some of the challenges/issues/problems about people’s behaviors they encountered at work or when working with people. As a guide, try to limit to not more than 3 challenges. Part 1 should not be more than 1500 words. Try to identify for yourself what you want to learn from this course which will be useful in helping you understand and deal with people you work with in an effective manner. While the list of questions below may not exhaustive, I hope it will help you identify some of the potential issues/problems/challenges you may want to consider: o Think about a conflict which has arisen with one of your co-workers o Do you or your company have any major problems in motivating your or its work force? o How effective is your work group? o Describe your relationship with your boss – do you find it satisfying/dissatisfying? Are there problems in the way in which people use power and influence in your company? o How is change brought about in your company? b. Part 2. The complete assignment is to be handed in during Week 10. In total, this should be no more than 4000 words. The assignment should have the following sections a. Part 1 i. Title of the case ii. Description of the case (from week 3) iii. Why it happened the way it did? iv. What was done about it? b. Part 2 i. Your own analysis of the situation ii. What theories, concepts and frameworks covered in LOB course that may be useful here? iii. Based on your analysis and the theories, concepts and frameworks highlighted, how should the case be resolved? iv. What is your biggest takeaway from this case as a leader? Leadership Develops Daily, not in a Day – John Maxwell 8 OTHER ADMINISTRATIVE MATTERS Late Submission of Assignments Penalties will be imposed for late submissions that are not supported with valid reasons. A penalty of 10 marks will be imposed for each day that the assignment is submitted late. For example, a mark of 65% would become 55% if the assignment is submitted a day late and 45% if it is two days late. In order to ensure equity, students are reminded to stay within the word limit set for each assignment. Academic Integrity Truth, Trust and Justice are at the core of NTU’s shared values. Good academic work includes to a very large extent, honesty and ethical behaviour. The quality of your work as a student is therefore subjected to adhering to principles of academic integrity and to the NTU Honor Code, a set of values shared by everyone in NTU. The content of assignments submitted for grading purposes must be that of your own. You should therefore be diligent in identifying and acknowledging the sources of information used in completing your work (full details must be provided in your reference section). If you feel that the use of the exact wordings from a reference source is the best way to present the ideas, then you must use quotation marks and acknowledge the source. If you choose to summarise the words from a reference, the source must also be acknowledged, as this is not an original piece of work from you. Submitted work must be your own effort and must not duplicate (in whole or in part) the work of others (including other students). As a student, the responsibility falls on you to be familiar with and to apply the principles of academic integrity in all the work you do at NTU. Hence you will need to proactively familiarise yourself with the strategies to avoid all forms of academic dishonesty, including plagiarism, academic fraud, collusion, cheating, etc. Detailed information can be obtained via the academic integrity website at http://academicintegrity. ntu. edu. sg. Pleading ignorance or claiming that one is unaware of the requirements for maintaining academic integrity does not excuse academic dishonesty. As members of the NTU family, this is a responsibility that students and faculty staff alike must uphold at all times. Use of edveNTUre (Blackboard) The edveNTUre system (Blackboard) will be used to facilitate the posting of assignments, course materials and announcements, as well as for interacting with your coursemates and myself. Do ensure that your personal particulars especially your hand-phone number (if you have one) is updated in edveNTUre. This will allow you to receive urgent messages e. g. change in timing for lessons, via SMS from me. Leadership Develops Daily, not in a Day – John Maxwell 9 Overview of Class Schedule Date Mar 13 Mar 20 Mar 27 Mar 3 April 10 April 17 April 24 April 2 May 8 May 15 May 22 May Topic Overview of Organizational Behaviour and Leadership Process Know Yourself: You as a leader (I) Know Yourself: You as a leader (II) Understanding Others: Your Followers (I) Understanding Others: Your Followers (II) Dialogue with A Group Executive Chairman Ov erview of Team Effectiveness Leadership in Teams Overview of Organizational Effectiveness Leadership in Organizations Conversation with a Leadership Coach Conclusion: Leadership in An Age of Uncertainty Leadership Develops Daily, not in a Day – John Maxwell 10 How to cite Leadership Is â€Å"Having an Irrational Sense of Hope†, Papers

Baroque free essay sample

Baroque Art and Architecture, the style dominating the art and architecture of Europe and certain European colonies in the Americas throughout the 1600s, and in some places, until 1750. A number of its characteristics continue in the art and architecture of the first half of the 18th century, although this period is generally termed rococo (see Rococo Style) and corresponds roughly with King Louis XV of France. Manifestations of baroque art appear in virtually every country in Europe, ith other important centers in the Spanish and Portuguese settlements in the Americas and in other outposts. The term baroque also defines periods in literature and music. II DEFINITION The origins of the word baroque are not clear. It may have been derived from the Portuguese barocco or the Spanish barueco to indicate an irregularly shaped pearl. The word itself does not accurately define or even approximate the meaning of the style to which it refers. However, by the end of the 18th century baroque had entered the terminology of art criticism as an epithet leveled against 17th-century art, which any later critics regularly dismissed as too bizarre or strange to merit serious study. Writers such as the 19th-century Swiss cultural historian Jakob Burckhardt considered this style the decadent end of the Renaissance; his student Heinrich , in Principles of Art History (191 5; translated 1932), first pointed out the fundamental differences between the art of the 16th and 17th centuries, stating that baroque is neither a rise nor a decline from classic, but a totally different art. Baroque art encompasses vast regional distinctions. It may seem confusing, for xample, to label two such different artists as Rembrandt and Gianlorenzo Bernini as baroque; yet despite differences, they shared certain baroque elements, such as a preoccupation with the dramatic potential of light. A Historical Background Understanding the various forms of baroq ue art requires knowledge of its historical context. The 17th century could be called the first modern age. Human awareness of the world was continuously expanding. Many scientific discoveries influenced art; Galileos investigations of the planets, for example, account for astronomical accuracy in many paintings of the time. The assertion of the Polish astronomer Copernicus that the planets did not revolve around the earth was written by 1 530, published in 1 543, and only fully accepted after 1600. The realization that the earth was not at the center of the universe coincided in art with the rise of pure landscape painting devoid of human figures. The active trade and colonization policies of many European nations accounted for numerous portrayals of places and peoples that were exotic to Europeans. Religion determined many aspects of baroque art. The Roman Catholic church was a highly influential patron, and its Counter Reformation, movement to combat the spread of Protestantism, employed emotional, realistic, and dramatic art as a means ot propagating the taitn The simplicity sought by Protestantism in countries such as the Netherlands and northern Germany likewise explains the severity of the architectural styles in those areas. Political situations also influenced art. The absolute monarchies of France and Spain prompted the creation of works that reflected in their size and splendor the majesty of their kings, Louis XIV and Philip V. B Baroque characteristics Among the general characteristics of baroque art is a sense of movement, energy, nd tension (whether real or implied). Strong contrasts of light and shadow enhance the dramatic effects of many paintings and sculptures. Even baroque buildings, with their undulating walls and decorative surface elements, imply motion. Intense spirituality is often present in works of baroque art; in the Roman Catholic countries, for example, scenes of ecstasies, martyrdoms, or miraculous apparitions are common. Infinite space is often suggested in baroque paintings or sculptures; throughout the Renaissance and into the baroque period, painters sought a grander sense of space and truer depiction of perspective in their works. Realism is another integral feature of baroque art; the figures in paintings are not types but individuals with their own personalities. Artists of this time were concerned with the inner workings of the mind and attempted to portray the passions of the soul on the faces they painted and sculpted. The intensity and immediacy of baroque art and its individualism and detail†observed in such things as the convincing rendering of cloth and skin textures†make it one of the most compelling periods of Western art. C Early baroque styles The roots of baroque styles are found in the art of Italy, and especially in that of Rome in the late 16th century. A desire for greater clarity and simplification inspired a number of artists in their reaction against the anticlassical Mannerist style, with its subjective emphasis on distortion, asymmetry, bizarre Juxtapositions, and biting colors. Annibale Carracci and Michelangelo Merisi, called Caravaggio, were the two artists in the forefront of the early baroque. Caravaggios art is influenced by naturalism and the grand humanism of Michelangelo and the High Renaissance. His paintings often include types drawn from everyday life engaged in completely elievable activities, as well as heroic and tender depictions of religious and mythological subjects. The school that developed around Carracci, on the other hand, attempted to rid art of its mannered complications by returning to the High Renaissance principles of clarity, monumentality, and balance. This baroque classicism remained important throughout the century. A third baroque style developed in Rome about 1630, the so-called high baroque; it is generally considered the most characteristic mode of 17th-century art, with its exuberance, emotionalism, theatricality, and unrestrained energy. Ill BAROQUE ART IN ITALY In Italy painting, sculpture, and architecture evolved from Mannerism to an early baroque mode. This change followed the Council of Trents call in 1563 for art that would instruct and cultivate piety through simplicity. A Italian Baroque Painting Some of the first and most influential artists to undertake a systematic reform of the Mannerist style were ot the Carracci tamily. Annibale, his brother Agostino, and t cousin Ludovico were Bolognese artists who had an enormous impact on the art of the baroques greatest center, Rome. Annibale arrived there in 1595. Having already ecome famous for his frescoes in Bologna, he was commissioned to execute the ceiling painting (1597-1600) in the Galleria of Romes Farnese Palace, his most significant work and a key monument in the development of the classical or ideal, baroque manner, of which Annibale was the chief initiator. This style appealed to such artists as Guido Reni, Domenico Zampieri, called Domenichino, and Francesco Alban, who were trained by the Carracci at their workshop in Bologna. Other baroque classicists, such as the French painters Nicolas Poussin and Claude Lorrain, came from abroad to work in Rome. Also drawn to Rome was Caravaggio, who became the principal rival of Annibale. Works such as the Calling and the Martyrdom of Saint Matthew (1599? -1600, San Luigi dei Frances, Rome) found sympathetic response, and Caravaggio came to be the guiding spirit behind an entire school of baroque naturalists. Naturalism was spread throughout Italy in the first two decades of the 17th century by such native painters as Orazio Gentileschi and his daughter Artemisia, Bartolomeo Manfredi, and Caracciolo, called Battistello, and later by foreigners working in Italy, including the French painter Valentin de Boulogne, Gerrit an Honthorst from the Netherlands, and the Spaniard Jusepe de Ribera. Although of lesser importance in Italy after about 1630, baroque naturalism continued to have an enormous impact throughout the rest of the century in all parts of Europe. Another turning point in the history of baroque painting took place in the late 1620s. Many artists attempted to introduce greater liveliness and drama into their works to create illusions of limitless space (illusionism). From 1625 to 1627 Giovanni Lanfranco painted the enormous dome of the church of Sant Andrea della Valle in Rome with his Assumption of the Virgin. Although this fresco was inspired by Correggios Renaissance ceilings in Parma, it virtually overwhelmed contemporary spectators with its exuberant illusionistic effects and became one of the first high baroque masterpieces. Lanfrancos work in Rome (1613-1630) and in Naples (1634-1646) was fundamental to the development of illusionism in Italy. The illusionistic ceiling fresco was a particularly important medium for high baroque painters. Pietro Berrettini, called Pietro da Cortona, developed it to an extraordinary degree in works such as the ceiling (1633-1639) of the gran salone of Romes Barberini Palace. From 1676 to 1679 Giovanni Battista Gaulli, also called Baciccio, painted Adoration of the Name of Jesus on the ceiling of the GesÃ'Ëœ Church in Rome. From 1691 to 1694 Andrea Pozzo painted The Entrance of Saint Ignatius into Paradise for the ceiling of Sant Ignazio, Rome, with the same theatricality, drama, and emotion that had characterized high baroque painting throughout the century. B Italian Baroque Sculpture Anti-Mannerism in Italian sculpture is first seen in Saint Cecilia (1600, Santa Cecilia in Trastevere, Rome) by Stefano Maderno. Its simple curving lines represent a dramatic eparture from the more pronounced contortions of earlier works. It was Gianlorenzo Bernini, however, who dominated baroque sculpture in Rome. Among his early over- life-size group sculptures, Abduction of Proserpina (1621-1622) and Apollo and Daphne (1622 1624, both Galleria Borghese, Rome) display his virtuosity in the handling of marble, creating effects of realistic dramatic tension, strong light-and- dark contrasts, and the illusion of variegated colors. His Ecstasy of Saint Theresa (1645-1652, Cornaro Chapel, Santa Maria della Vittoria, Rome) epitomizes the highly charged theatricality that is a hallmark of the baroque. Bernini was the favorite artist of the popes, for whom he did highly ambitious works in the Vatican. The huge baldachin, a pillared canopy (1624-1633), above the high altar in Saint Peters Church, as well as the Cathedra Petri (Chair of Saint Peter, 1657-1666) in the apse of the church, attest in their colossal size and precious materials (including marble and gilded bronze) to the sumptuous splendor of Roman Catholicism. Bernini also excelled in portraiture, as may be seen in such examples as Costanza Buonarelli (1635? , Bargello, Florence) and Pope Innocent X (1647? , Palazzo Doria-Pamphili, Rome). His only rival in this genre was the sculptor Alessandro Algardi. Fountains were among the principal types of baroque public monuments, and those by Bernini are among the most outstanding examples. Fountain of the Four Rivers (1648-1651) in Romes Piazza Navona startles the viewer with its mammoth statues and obelisk balanced almost precariously on ledges from which gush dramatic cascades of water. Bernini was also an important and influential architect; in addition to the vast colonnade (begun 1656) embracing Saint Peters Square, he designed such churches as Sant Andrea al Quirinale (1658-1670) in Rome. C Italian Baroque Architecture Among the first major architects of the early baroque was Carlo Maderno, who is known principally for his work on Saint Peters. Between 1606 and 1612 he built the nave extension and facade of this structure, begun approximately 100 years earlier by Donato Bramante. Aside from Bernini, the major architects of the Roman baroque were Francesco Borromini and, to a lesser extent, Carlo Rainaldi. Together they designed Sant Agnese (begun 1652) in Piazza Navona. The elegantly undulating facade of Borrominis San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane (1665-1667) in Rome, with its onvex and concave rhythms echoing those of the interior, might be called the quintessence of Italian baroque architecture. Building activity also occurred in centers outside Rome during the early decades of the 17th century. Francesco Maria Ricchino, in Milan, and Baldassare Longhena, in Venice, both designed central-plan churches. Longhenas Santa Maria della Salute (begun 1631) has been noted for its extravagantly ornate exterior and its superb site at the entrance to the Grand Canal. Especially theatrical is the work of Guarino Guarini in Turin. His Cappella della Santa Sindone (Chapel of the Holy Shroud, 1667-94) astounds the observer with its intricate geometric forms derived from Islamic buildings in the unusually high dome. IV BAROQUE ART IN SPAIN Although he is acknowledged as one of the great Spanish painters, the influence of El Grecos Mannerism was fairly slight in Spain. The early appearance of a naturalistic baroque style was due to an influence from Italy. A Spanish Baroque Painting Vincente Carducho, a Florentine artist, was influential in establishing a Counter Reformation anti-Mannerist painting style in central Spain. Juan Sanchez Cotan and Juan van der Hamen were botn expert at painting realistic still t li es that combine an influence from the Netherlands with that of Caravaggio. In Valencia, a naturalistic baroque mode is observed in the work of Francisco Ribalta, inspired by the art of both the Italian High Renaissance painter Titian and Jusepe de Ribera. Seville and Madrid became the two greatest centers of Spanish baroque art. For example, early in the 17th century, baroque characteristics emerged in the paintings of Juan de las Roelas, Francisco Pacheco, and Francisco de Herrera the Elder. In his early work, Francisco de Zurbaran, who settled in Seville in 1629, derived some of his inspiration from Flemish prints, but his most impressive baroque compositions are deeply moving for their direct and realistic approach to religious subject matter. Zurbaran worked almost exclusively for convents and monasteries. Late in his life his style was touched by the softening influence of Bartolom © Esteban Murillo. Works by Caravaggio were seen in Seville by 1603. Their popularity partially accounts for the strong realist influence on the work of Spains greatest baroque painter, Diego de Velazquez. In Seville Velazquez painted such earthy works as Old Woman Frying Eggs (1618, National Gallery of Scotland, Edinburgh). In 1623 he moved to Madrid to serve as portraitist to Philip V, a post he retained throughout his life. His series of royal portraits culminated in The Maids of Honor (1656, Prado, Madrid), representing the royal family, court functionaries, and the artist himself. Velazquez was also noted for historical and mythological compositions and for his work as an architect and decorator. Two other important artists of Velazquezs generation were also from Andalucia† Alonso Cano and Murillo. Cano (also a sculptor and architect) is noted for his sensitive renderings of flesh, as in the Descent into Limbo (1650? , Los Angeles County Museum of Art), one of the few Spanish baroque treatments of the nude. Murillo specialized in sentimental genre paintings and renderings of the Immaculate Conception. The late baroque in Seville is best represented by Juan de Vald ©s Leal, whose two paintings (1672) of vanitas (reminders of mortality) subjects in the Hospital of La Caridad, Seville, are horrifying in their morbid, ultrarealistic depictions of skeletons and putrefying cadavers. In Madrid, the last generation of baroque painters includes Francisco Rizi, Juan Carreno de Miranda, and Claudio Coello, artists who cultivated a style based on the Italian high baroque. B Spanish Baroque Sculpture Italian art had little impact on Spanish baroque sculpture, which was essentially an outgrowth of the medieval woodcarving tradition. Realism and intense attention to detail characterize all Spanish wood sculpture; it is usually polychromed, and, at times, provided with glass eyes, hair, and garments. Among the most important works of Spanish baroque sculpture are numerous carved ood retables (altar pieces), many of considerable size and richness, produced by sculptor-architects. Of these, Gregorio Fernandez, who worked principally in Valladolid, was the major sculptor of central Spain, while the southern school is best represented by Juan Martinez Montan ©s and Juan de Mesa from Seville and Pedro de Mena and Alonso Cano working in Granada. C Spanish Baroque Architecture Spanish architecture of the early baroque often continues the pattern ot the muted severe style ot the monastery-palace ot El Escorial (1563-1582) near Madrid, as in the Buen Retiro Palace (begun 1631, now destroyed) in Madrid. Canos facade for Granada Cathedral (designed 1667) contains classical elements but, in its surface decoration, points the way to the development of the rococo style. The most ornate baroque buildings are found in Andalucia. Sevilles Hospital of Los Venerables Sacerdotes (1687-1697), designed by Leonardo de Figueroa, is typical. In the rest of the country the Churrigueresque style, a wildly exuberant baroque mode named for the Churriguera family of architects, is evident in richly adorned buildings in Barcelona, Madrid, and especially Salamanca. D Spanish Baroque in the New World The art of the New World in the 17th century followed lines similar to that of the Iberian countries. Among the major centers in Spanish America were Mexico, Guatemala (especially the city of Antigua Guatemala), and Peru (Cusco and Lima). The art of Brazil followed the patterns set by Portugal. In painting, the styles of Caravaggio, Zurbaran, and Murillo had tremendous impact. Paintings of the Cusco school combined indigenous decorative forms with European-like figures. Sculptural decoration from native sources also served as an ntegral part of the interiors and exteriors of the hundreds of baroque churches constructed in a flamboyant and exaggerated Churrigueresque mode, in all parts of the Spanish colonies at this time. V BAROQUE ART IN NORTHERN EUROPE The baroque spread rapidly to the countries of northern Europe from Italy, where most of the major masters went to study the manifestations of the new style. Each country, however, developed distinctive versions of the baroque, depending on its particular political, religious, and economic conditions. A Flemish Baroque The Flemish baroque is dominated by the brilliance of Peter Paul Rubens. His youthful painting style was formed from such diverse Italian sources as Caravaggio, the Carracci, and Michelangelo, evidenced by his Rape of the Daughters of Leucippus (1616-1617? Alte Pinakothek, Munich). Rubens and his atelier executed a large number of mythological and religious paintings for patrons all over Europe. Rubenss mature style, with its exceedingly rich colors, dynamic compositions, and voluptuous female forms, is the peak of northern baroque painting and is exemplified by his famous series of 21 huge canvases, The Life of Marie de M ©dicis (162 1-1625, Louvre, Paris). Among Rubenss pupils, his most worthy successor was Anthony van Dyck, whose specialty was elegant portraiture, such as Portrait of Charles I in Hunting Dress (1635, Louvre). Jacob Jordaens and Adriaen Brouwer are best known for their convincing peasant genre scenes, which are also the subjects of Flemish artist David Teniers and Dutch artist Adriaen van Ostade. Flemish baroque sculptors often derived inspiration from Italian art. Franpis Duquesnoy worked with Bernini in Rome, executing the gigantic Saint Andrew in Saint Peters in 1633. The style of the work of Artus Quellinus was derived from Italy nd from Rubens. Italian taste is equally present in architecture, as in the former Jesuit church of Saint Charles Borromeo (1615-1621, now a museum), in Antwerp, Belgium. Dutch Baroque At the turn of the 17th century many Dutch artists, such as Hendrik Goltzius, were still working in the Mannerist idiom. Caraveggesque baroque was brought to the Netherlands when several artists, including Gerrit van Honthorst and Hendrik Terbrugghen, returned to their homeland from Italy; by the 1620s naturalism was entrenched in Utrecht. In that decade and the next Frans Hals produced portraits emarkable for their deft brushwork, informality, and naturalness. Many of Halss paintings are of local militia companies, as is The Night Watch (1642, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam) by the greatest Dutch baroque master, Rembrandt. Unlike most Dutch artists, Rembrandt painted a wide variety of subjects†portraiture, history, mythology, religious scenes, and landscape†with unmatched virtuosity. His handling of glowing light against dark backgrounds, his deft, flickering brushwork in thick paint, his truthful but sympathetic rendering of his subjects are among the virtues that place Rembrandt in the highest rank of painters. His fame as a graphic artist is also unsurpassed. The creation of a convincing psychological ambience and masterly evocation of shimmering light effects distinguish the midcentury work of Jan Vermeer; his meticulous draftsmanship and delicate handling of pigment, often imitated, are unique. Landscape, still life, animal painting, and architectural views now became important genres in Dutch baroque painting. Until about 1650, Dutch sculpture remained Mannerist; a strongly baroque exuberance was then introduced by Flemish sculptors, most notably by Quellinus ith his work for the interior and exterior of the Amsterdam Town Hall. The building, now the Royal Palace, was begun in 1648 to the plans of Jacob van Campen. It epitomizes the pervasive taste of the time for a classicism based on the published designs of the 16th-century Italian architect Andrea Palladio. C English Baroque Baroque painting in England was dominated by the presence of Rubens and van Dyck, who inspired an entire generation of portraitists. British sculpture was influenced equally by Italian and Flemish styles. The architect Inigo Jones studied the classicism of Andrea Palladio in Italy, as is evident in his Banqueting House (1619-1622, London), with a spectacular ceiling painting, Allegory of Peace and War (1629), by Rubens. Sir Christopher Wren also Journeyed to Italy, and his plans for Saint Pauls Cathedral (begun 1675, London) reveal his study of Bramante, Borromini, and other Italian architects. Wren, who was in charge of the rebuilding of London after the fire of 1666, influenced the course of architecture in England and its North American colonies for over a century. D French Baroque At the start of the 17th century in France, the Mannerist school of Fontainebleau was till active in commissions for the Palace of Fontainebleau, where projects such as the decoration of the Chapel of Trinity with paintings (1619) by Martin Fr ©minet continued earlier traditions. Mannerism is also found in the prints of Jacques Callot and Jacques Bellange. The candlelit scenes of Georges de La Tour, however, suggest Caravaggios influence. Baroque naturalism arrived with artists such as Valentin de Boulogne, who had lived in Italy and with those who had contact with Flemish realism, such as the Le Nain brothers and Philippe de Champaigne. Of greatest mportance tor the history ot French baroque painting is the classicism ot Nicolas Poussin. Although he lived for most of his creative life in Rome, Poussins impact† and that of his fellow expatriate Claude Lorrain†in his own land was enormous. Late in the century classicism combined with a high baroque manner in Charles Lebruns frescoes at the Palace of Versailles. In the late baroque paintings of Antoine Coypel, the pervasive influence of Rubens is strongly apparent, especially in those for the Royal Chapel of Versailles. The sculpture of Pierre Puget is also in the high baroque style; Franpis Girardon and Antoine Coysevox expressed a marked classicism in monumental sculptures for the king. Girardons group Apollo and the Nymphs (1666-1672), in the Grotto of Thetis at Versailles, is indicative of the French taste for a chaste version of the antique. The Palace of Versailles (begun 1669), created for Louis XIV†the Sun King†by Louis Le Vau, Andr © Le Notre, and Charles Lebrun, is the single most important French baroque architectural monument. It is dedicated to the Sun King, and its measured classical forms, vast and complex gardens, and sumptuous interiors glorify the power f the monarchy; it gave rise to imitations by dozens of other rulers throughout Europe. A similarly grandiose project was the enlargement (1660s-1670s) of the Louvre by Le Vau, Lebrun, Claude Perrault, and others, a work of great restraint and subtlety. E Austrian and German Baroque Although political events†the Thirty Years War (1618-1648) in Germany and the Turkish presence in Austria†prevented baroque art in those countries from truly flourishing until the 18th century, some 17th-century artists of merit did emerge. Two masters of German baroque painting are Adam Elsheimer, who moved to Rome in 600, worked in a classical manner and was strongly influenced by Italian painters, and Johann Liss, who traveled to Venice in 1621 and worked there and in Rome.